1979 Seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca

The seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 is a seminal event in the evolution of Islamist terrorism. Yet the seizure is mostly a footnote in contemporary history. It shouldnt be. The Grand Mosque in Mecca is a massive, 7-acre compound that can accommodate some 1 million worshippers at any one time, especially during the annual hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca centered on circling the sacred Kaaba in the heart of the Grand Mosque. The marble mosque in its current shape is the result of a 20-year, $18 billion renovation project began in 1953 by the House of Saud, the ruling monarchy in Saudi Arabia, which considers itself the guardian and custodian of the Arab Peninsula’s holiest sites, the Grand Mosque topmost among them. The monarchy’s contractor of choice was the Saudi Bin Laden Group, led by the man who in 1957, became the father of Osama bin Laden. The Grand Mosque, however, first came to wide Western attention on November 20, 1979. Coffins as Weapons Cache: Seizure of the Grand Mosque At 5 that morning, the final day of the hajj, Sheikh Mohammed al-Subayil, imam of the Grand Mosque, was preparing to address 50,000 worshipers through a microphone inside the mosque. Among the worshipers, what looked like mourners bearing coffins on their shoulders and wearing headbands made their way through the crowd. It wasnt an unusual sight. Mourners often brought their dead for a blessing at the mosque. But they had no mourning in mind. Sheikh Mohammed al-Subayil was shoved aside by men who took machine guns from beneath their robes, fired them in the air and at a few policemen nearby, and yelled to the crowd that â€Å"The Mahdi has appeared!† Mahdi is the Arabic word for messiah. The mourners set their coffins down, opened them up, and produced an arsenal of weaponry that they then brandished and fired at the crowd. That was only part of their arsenal. An Attempted Overthrow by a Would-Be Messiah The attack was led by Juhayman al-Oteibi, a fundamentalist preacher and former member of the Saudi National Guard, and Mohammed Abdullah al-Qahtani, who claimed to be the Mahdi. The two men openly called for a revolt against the Saudi monarchy, accusing it of having betrayed Islamic principles and sold out to western countries. The militants, who numbered close to 500, were well armed, their weapons, in addition to their coffin arsenal, having been stashed gradually in the days and weeks before the assault in small chambers beneath the Mosque. They were prepared to lay siege to the mosque for a long time. The siege lasted two weeks, though it did not end before a bloodbath in underground chambers where militants had retreated with hundreds of hostages--and bloody repercussions in Pakistan and Iran. In Pakistan, a mob of Islamist students enraged by a false report that the United States was behind the mosque seizure, attacked the American embassy in Islamabad and killed two Americans. Irans Ayatollah Khomeini called the attack and the murders a great joy, and also blamed the seizure on the United States and Israel. In Mecca, Saudi authorities considered attacking the hold-outs without regard for the hostages. Instead, Prince Turki, the youngest son of King Faisal and the man in charge of reclaiming the Grand Mosque, summoned a French secret service officer, Count Claude Alexandre de Marenches, who recommended that the hold-outs be gassed unconscious. Indiscriminate Killing As Lawrence Wright describes it in The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, A team of three French commandos from the Groupe d’Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale (GIGN) arrived in Mecca. Because of the prohibition against non-Muslims entering the holy city, they converted to Islam in a brief, formal ceremony. The commandos pumped gas into the underground chambers, but perhaps because the rooms were so bafflingly interconnected, the gas failed and the resistance continued.With casualties climbing, Saudi forces drilled holes into the courtyard and dropped grenades into the rooms below, indiscriminately killing many hostages but driving the remaining rebels into more open areas where they could be picked off by sharpshooters. More than two weeks after the assault began, the surviving rebels finally surrendered. At dawn on Jan. 9, 1980, in the public squares of eight Saudi cities, including Mecca, 63 Grand Mosque militants were beheaded by sword on orders of the king. Among the condemned, 41 are Saudi, 10 from Egypt, 7 from Yemen (6 of them from what was then South Yemen), 3 from Kuwait, 1 from Iraq and 1 from the Sudan. Saudi authorities report that 117 militants died as a result of the siege, 87 during the fighting, 27 in hospitals. Authorities also noted that 19 militants received death sentences that were later commuted to life in prison. Saudi security forces suffered 127 deaths and 451 wounded. Were the bin Ladens Involved? This much is known: Osama bin Laden would have been 22 at the time of the attack. He would have likely heard Juhayman al-Oteibi preach. The Bin Laden Group was still heavily involved in the renovation of the Grand Mosque: the company’s engineers and workers had open access to the mosque’s grounds, Bin Laden trucks were inside the compound frequently, and bin Laden workers were familiar with the compound’s every recess: they built some of them. It would be a stretch, however, to assume that because the bin Ladens were involved in construction, they were also involved in the attack. What’s also known is that the company shared all maps and layouts they had of the mosque with authorities to facilitate the Saudi Special Forces’ counter-attack. It would not have been in the bin Laden Group’s interest, enriched as it had become almost exclusively through Saudi government contracts, to aid the regime’s opponents. Just as certainly, what Juhayman al-Oteibi and the â€Å"Mahdi† were preaching, advocating and rebelling against is almost word for word, eye for an eye, what Osama bin Laden would preach and advocate subsequently. The Grand Mosque takeover was not an al-Qaeda operation by any means. But it would become an inspiration, and a stepping stone, to al-Qaeda less than a decade and a half later.

Christopher Columbus, A Genoese Explorer - 838 Words

The European explorers who discovered the new lands of America and Africa were in search of an all-water route to China and India. After establishing reliable routes in this newly discovered land, the motives of the Spanish explorers soon morphed into seeking wealth and fortune. This is also true in the conquering of Africa as well. These types of motives greatly jeopardized the sustainability of the native culture of the area and eventually pushed them close to abolishment. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese explorer employed by Spain, was the first to sail west in search of this route to China and India. Landing in the Bahamas, he was certain he found what they had set out to. During the exploration of the area he discovered with every turn he took, it seemed he encountered native people native. These people he referred to as â€Å"Indians† with the belief that he had reached the territories of India and China (pg. 438-466). Like the Spanish, the Portuguese were also in search for new sea routes to the East. Landing in Africa they quickly established themselves, and soon took control of the markets in gold, salt, and slaves. They too came across native people of the lands, but these people were much different than the Indians that Columbus was introduced to (pg 453). The new lands provided gold, silver, and salt, which supported the main motive of the Conquistadors and the Europeans. While precious metals were lucrative, slavery was the most profitable. Treated as aShow MoreRelatedChristopher Columbus s Voyage Preparations And His Religious Beliefs1401 Words   |  6 PagesChristopher Columbus lived during the early modern period, more precisely the Renaissance (Boucher). At the time, the pre- modern worldview that once dominated Europe since antiquity (existence to 476 C.E) began to vanish due to new intellectual way of thinking, which ultimately mature in the modern way of thinking (Boucher). While Columbus contributed to this momentous shift, there is evidence that one might argue that between Columbus’ voyage preparations and his religious beliefs, the iconic GenoeseRead MoreEssay on The Voyage Of Christopher Columbus1497 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican History I Christopher Columbus Voyage to North America Spanish exploration first began with a series of revolutions. First, the Commercial Revolution generated economic stability. Second, the Intellectual Revolution generated interest in the Earths composition and the pursuit of exploration. Europe then called for a political revolution to end the disorganized and disorderly rule of its government. This revolution returned order and stability to the government and renewed interestRead MoreThe Voyage of Christopher Columbus1541 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican History I 07/08/05 Christopher Columbus Voyage to North America Spanish exploration first began with a series of revolutions. First, the Commercial Revolution generated economic stability. Second, the Intellectual Revolution generated interest in the Earths composition and the pursuit of exploration. Europe then called for a political revolution to end the disorganized and disorderly rule of its government. This revolution returned order and stability to the government and renewed interestRead MoreChristopher Columbus, Mariner, by Samuel Eliot Morison Essay1628 Words   |  7 PagesChristopher Columbus was born in the port city of Genoa, Italy in 1451. His father was a wool weaver named Domenico Columbo. As a boy, Christopher had no schooling. He and his younger brother Bartholomew helped their father by carding raw wool. Christopher grew up to be a tall, red-haired, quiet and deeply religious man. He worked for his father until he was 22. 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Born in 1451, Columbus was a Genoese captain commissioned by the king and queen of Spain to find a route to the Indies. However, he sailed the opposite direction of his intended goal by crossing the Atlantic and landing in the Americas, resulting in the discovery of the New World for Spain. Like all major figures in history, Columbus has left behind a legacy that people will always remember himRead MoreChristopher Columbus And The Middle Of A Population Revival1405 Words   |  6 Pagesactivity after the Black Death. Some Iberian explorers began setting out on voyages, as the revival created a demand of luxuries, such as spices, in the East. This expansion also was also caused by religious fervor. The Christian reconquist a encouraged the Portuguese and Spanish to continue the Christian crusade. Portugal sent Vasco da Gama and Spain sent Christopher Columbus to find a trading route to Asia (History, 432). Both da Gama and Columbus were sailors on a mission to Asia, but the natureRead MoreMarco Polo : The Glories Of Kinsay Essay1813 Words   |  8 Pagesreliable way to truly comprehend what occurred during the period of time when the document was created. The stories about the great explorers from Europe are all based upon the hard evidence laid out in letters, oral histories, paintings, maps and treaties. Marco Polo: The Glories of Kinsay, part of the book detailing the adventures of Marco Polo, and the letter Columbus Reports on his First Voyage are two noteworthy representations of early exploration of the world from Europe and the cultural differencesRead MoreWe Should Abolish Columbus Day1389 Words   |  6 Pages 2016 We Should Abolish Columbus Day Only two federal holidays in the United States bear the name of two specific men, ironically one of them fought racism -- Martin Luther King Jr., and the other was a genocidal racist – Chistopher Columbus. Opposition to Columbus Day (observed on the second Monday of October) has intensified in recent decades, while the former passes each year with relatively little controversy. The issue of if we should still celebrate Columbus Day is widely discussed. TheRead MoreThe Discovery Of The New World1075 Words   |  5 PagesSince the arrival of Columbus to the New World in 1492, it began a new era for the Spanish Empire. During this time Spain successfully conducted the Reconquista back home and were power hungry for more land to conquer to keep the momentum going. The early explorations would lead to bigger conquest and fortunes for the Spaniards. After the reunification of Spain with Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand, they financed the expedition for the Genoese explorer, Christopher Columbus, for trading routes to

Destructive earthquake free essay sample

Yuan directly,but in an other aspect, in the way of rebuilding the homes gathering all the strength together and give Went Chuan a bright new look. So can man triumph over nature?On the one hand, it seems that man always fight against nature , someone consider in a proper way that man can triumph over nature,slung natures rower ,seeking for a way to shelter from disasters, Whats more, many tools have been designed to keep us out of hazards due to the highly developing technologies. On the other hand, its a belief that the forces of nature are powerful and we hardly have any Ideas coping with such an unexpected problem. For example, we still can not foresee an earthquake and we can not become a superman to save ourselves and others when there Is a big tsunami or a destructive earthquake. E are tiny In front of nature. We will write a custom essay sample on Destructive earthquake or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There Is no denying that nature plays an essential part In humans stateless and makes great differences to us. I take It for granted that man cant triumph over nature all the way, however, whats the most significant thing is that why we must triumph over nature ,we have the right to choose another way to get along with nature which is to respect it.

Land Pollution in Dar es Salaam Urban City Essay Example

Land Pollution in Dar es Salaam Urban City Paper The concept of land pollution by government is so wide and complex because it has been conceptualized differently by different actors such as organization, government itself and private sectors through over time. This includes responsibility of the government and non-government actors about the cause, effects and solution to land pollution problem. Land pollution is said to be a threat to urban dwellers in both developed and developing countries. As a population growth rate and arbitration become increased, solid and chemical waste is generated due to different activities including industrial and human activities. Arbitration as argued by Dubbed (1 990:1 7) defines arbitration as a community consisting of a large concentration of population in a relatively limited geographical area. This is activated by the production of manufactured goods and distribution of various types of goods and services involving high degree of specialization and complicated technology. The main objectives of this research paper are to explore the industrial activities to land pollution problem in relation to urban city change in Dark sees Salaam Tanzania. The study is generally aimed to explore Dark sees Salaam urban city planning for solid waste management system and the currency of land pollution in areas of Leila, Kingdom and Teemed municipal. We will write a custom essay sample on Land Pollution in Dar es Salaam Urban City specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Land Pollution in Dar es Salaam Urban City specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Land Pollution in Dar es Salaam Urban City specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The study was done through library research on land pollution, internet search about the root cause of land pollution, its effects and solution in Dark sees Salaam city among the other cities In East Africa and Africa at broad. Land pollution is seriously in areas of all, Teemed and Kingdom municipal where planning and sewage system are poorly developed. Today the garbage and other solid waste appears to be much in these areas and other urban dwellers and visitors in the country where plastic bags and cans are being seed. More data about this study have been collected through internet search, library search where few literature have been written little about land pollution in urban cities and other data were primarily obtained through oral and observation through naked eyes like poor toilet systems, sewage system, even here at university Dark sees Salaam particularly main campus and Mambo hostel where sewage system are poor due to frequent leakage and pollutes environment while others are secondary data related to the research topic. Other waste generated around this area including water bottles and plastic gas which are being used by almost all students and thrown everywhere around these areas. Few data Were collected by relating solid waste management, water resource management and energy resource management where quantitative and qualitative approach is used in this study. Other scholars argue that rural-urban migration in Tanzania is high and the urban population increased from 15 % of the total population in 1980 to 33% in 2001(World Bank, 2003) and it has been estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population in Tanzania will live in urban areas. Today the urban planning is inadequate. Consequently, the urban expansion lacks consideration of environmental issues (land, water quality and supply, sanitation and solid waste management) or urban-rural development effects. The current population growth rate according to Macomb, (2008 p. 14) is 4. 9 per annum. This means that there is an increased rate of solid and chemical waste generation in Dark sees Salaam urban city with its three municipalities of Leila, Kingdom and Teemed where solid and chemical wastes are being generated. The city is bound to come up with effective strategies for land pollution control for sustainable future generation. Various sources of land pollution show that industrial activities which are carried out in urban cities including Dark sees Salaam creates land or soil pollution, Jeanne Meager (2011) contents that the amount of waste produced by human societies is increasing. Pollution being a major problem in urban areas of Tanzania is due to improper treatment and disposal of solid and liquid wastes that contribute to urban area pollution. The combined result of these problems on land is that both air and water also have been contaminated with pollutants from land environment which are detrimental to human health. In Dark sees Salaam, for example, less than 5% of the population is connected to a sewage System. Where a sewage system exists, raw sewage is discharged directly into the Indian Ocean without prior treatment. The following are the suggested methods which are advised to be used; Dumping process and refineries of wastes, Sanitary landfill, Composition method and Incineration/burning of waste, but these methods have failed to set land free from pollution. Therefore land pollution means degradation or destruction of the earths surface and soil directly or indirectly as a result of human activities. Encyclopedia Britannica define land pollution as deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on the land or underground that threaten the public health and cause unsightly condition and nuisances. In Dark sees Salaam urban city landfill and land reclamation have led to land deterioration through landfill contents. Although different strategies for land pollution control are being suggested and drafted, land pollution is still a problem in Dark sees Salaam city due population increase that according to Jeanne Meager (201 1), the amount of waste produced by human societies is increasing which creates industrial asset effluents discharged from chemical industries, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, food processing industries, power plants like Bungs power plant in Kingdom municipal which generate fly ash and among the others. To manage land pollutants in the city is very costively and therefore the city at one stage is experienced mushrooming heaps of uncollected garbage, this waste produces smell which attracts flies that cause health problems to the city dwellers. However, presently there some signs of improvements although generally Tanzania has no culture of sorting out solid waste before disposal. Solid waste is collected and transported by contracted private companies to the dumpiest. It should be noted that all dumpiest in the city generate a lot of health and environmental problems Encyclopedia Britannica contents that, deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on land or underground leads to threaten of Public health and cause unsightly condition and nuisances. The idea of introducing sanitary landfill is ever talked about but never implemented by the government, Living (1999) contents that urban pollution is a major problem in urban where solid and liquid waste is a major contributor. Also the Daily Newspaper sometimes back carried a story entitled, Garbage dumps mushroom in Dark streets but this situation is not gloom as such because private and public agencies play a part to collect garbage and transport them to dumpiest by trucks while some waste are often burned. Therefore, Ajar N (2011), argues that all substances or compounds that enter the soil/the land are potentially contaminants; therefore we should recycle, reuse or reduce them. Some settlements such as Bunting and Hangnails are located along the Amazing River which cuts across Dark-sees-SIAM city from East to West dividing the city into two parts North and South). The rivers basin is mainly vegetated by mangrove swamps. The area is popular in Dark sees Salaam because of the role it plays in the urban economy. Most of the fresh vegetables, I. E. Macho (spinach), sold by street vendors in Dark-sees-Salaam are produced there and their residues are thrown away improperly, this leads to land pollution. In order to meet human needs like food production, manufacturing and processing of finished goods and packaging industries are established and increased rates of use have raised the rates of waste generation and regrettably the present technologies Anton cope with the increased rates of disposal. Industrialization process therefore contribute to land pollution through by products of food stuffs and chemicals which are highly toxic are being generated, poor sewage system treatment contributes to land pollution through solid waste and liquid waste is being left during sand mining sites or overcrowded sand mining agricultural products (food stuff remain), municipal and house hold waste such as papers, ashes, glass, metals bottles and plastic are some sources of waste or pollutants in areas of all, Kingdom and Teemed municipals. Several industries located along Pug Road industrial area discharge their waste materials like factory rubbish, packaging waste material, organic waste, scrap metals, tars, dyes, slags, batteries and other heavy metals into land (Stonewashed). The situation is environmentally unacceptable, other waste can be generated from shops, homes like bags, empty cans, glass, bottles, Waste paper, diaper, cloth or rags; bio medical Waste like pathological and anatomical waste; construction/demolition waste like concretes, debris, woods; horticulture waste like vegetable parts, residues and remains of laughter animals like bones are also discharged to land. In Tanzania, some of the root general causes for environmental land degradation are unsustainable farming and mining, overgrazing, uncontrolled forest clearing and wild fires. Other drivers include: inadequate alternative energy sources; a lack of financial institutions that provide credit to farmers to acquire or develop land; LACUNA annual report (201 2/ 201 3) contents that rapid population growth resulting in pressure on land resources. Therefore land pollution in Dark sees Salaam urban city is as a result of industrial activities, unman activities, poor urban planning and population growth rate. Sand mining for construction activities is being undertaken within the Dark sees Salaam City in areas which are not designated for such activities. This phenomenon has created conflicts between residents and city authorities and ultimately undermined principles of urban planning. It has created big holes which essentially affect the aesthetic features of the area. This activity has potentially exacerbated soil erosion and resulted into a loss of productive land. The Government passed the Environment Management Act of 2004 for effective and sustainable management of the environment. Hence, enforcing of special laws pertaining to environmental management is emphasized. Meaningful and effective environmental law must be clearly understood and treasured by the communities and individuals whom it is aimed. The legislation sets out standards and procedures, duties and limits, create obligations for all stakeholders, which will fit human activities and govern land resource sustainable. Waste transportation and collection according to Encyclopedia of environmental pollution and its control Volvo. IV (1989), involves lit modal combination of public and private agency like trucks, walking and head carrying depending on accessibility. These trucks some are owned by government and others by private trucks where bottles for cooking oils, local liquids are being collected and recycled. Also some metals like aluminum are collected to be recycled; crude oil is refined to produce usable diesel, gas and petrol. In the process of waste treatment some waste are biodegradable and easily dumped while others are non-biodegradable and are difficult to recycle, this cause land pollution. In developed countries nuclear waste nutrients to land pollution by generating radioactive materials that contain chemicals which affects human health and land environment. It is believed that with strong government and institutional framework which is well coordinated all the above environmental problems could be resolved. The major sources of land pollution in Dark sees Salaam City are motor vehicles that believed to be the primary source affecting ambient land quality, industrial pollution and residential burning of fossil fuels is another source for pollution. Automobile oil spills on land is a growing problem in Dark sees Salaam City and as such it needs immediate attention before it goes Out Of control. Environmental expenditure review PEER (2004) reports that large amount of waste particles such as woods, metals, bricks, electronic wires and plastics are generated during road construction, rail ways and houses. Classification of solid waste in these areas includes; garbage or decomposable waste, rubbish which can be combustible and non-combustible waste like paper, wood, cloth, rubber leather and garden waste, ashes, industrial solid waste and agricultural waste among the others. The simplest method which have been seed to collect these waste includes crude tipping or open dumping like at Tab dump site, this method is commonly used to those cities found around Indian Ocean and other method adopted but never implemented in Dark sees Salaam city is landfill for solid waste. Inadequate urban planning is a significant driving force behind rising pollution levels, because residential and commercial centers are often far apart, forcing mass movement of workers on a daily basis by using motor vehicles. Soil pollution; soil is being polluted as a result of land degradation through chemical fertilizers which are in liquid while others are in soil form, this weaken the soil quality. Therefore water or wind can easily remove top soil part. Another effect is the change in climate patterns due global warming as a result of deforestation and in the other hand poor urban planning and other human activities contributes to ecosystem that in turn leads to change in climate change because of ozone layer depletion as harmful gases are generated due smelling of garbage. Land pollution also leads to public health problems like diseases because it encourages the growth of flies which transmits typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery among other disease. Directing sewage disposal from land to ocean leads death of marine organisms and burning of waste leads to soil acidity. Various ways should be employed by government and private agencies on how to solve the problem of land pollution in rapid growing urban cities in Africa including Dark sees Salaam in Tanzania. The ways to be followed includes; Education to the people should be provided so as to be aware about the concept of reduce, recycle and re use products; the use of pesticides, insecticides and agricultural chemical fertilizers should be reduced in favor of using gardening or organic foods, the government and land managers should encourage buying or importing biodegradable products that do not affect land by either direct or indirectly; and the government or private agencies should encourage selection of open dumping sites which is a cheap method and providing public sanitary facilities for general environmental management like trucks and dustbins, introduction of national sanitary landfill, development of physical infrastructure and proper chemical waste disposal. Research paper wring as process of doing critical reading has been limited with time and books material about the topic. Time constrain ND lack of money for travel contributed this research paper to be conducted through telephone interview, internet search, email and library where very few readings related to research topic are found. The study attempts to cover a cross section of land pollution in Dark sees Salaam urban city and their surroundings with a varying action/cause, effects of pollutants or pollution as well as regulatory measures to overcome the problem. The main concerns in waste management are proliferation of plastic in waste streams, industrial waste, oil pipe leakage and sewage leakage. Engineering option for waste espousal in Dark sees Salaam is limited due to poor land planning and urban city planning, many open dump sites are not used properly and lack of national sanitary landfill. In different literatures, waste generation from various source is viewed to be disadvantageous and harmful to land and human health as it pollutes and contaminate the environment and attract flies which health leads to diseases like dysentery, diarrhea and typhoid but in the other side, waste if treated properly can be useful especially biodegradable waste can be used as sources of composite manure. It is not only all pollutants are harmful o environment but also some are useful as they save some microorganism in land. Land pollution in urban cities in developed and developing countries is generally as a result of different factors such as industrial activities, human activities, mining and agriculture activities. In Dark sees Salaam urban city, pollution is due to rapid population increase versus poor urban planning. Tanzania government has proved failure in urban planning in Dark sees Salaam city hence it is difficult for land managers to control land pollution, the natural environment has always been exploited to fulfill human needs but urine this century the scale of our demands has grown so large that we are degrading the ecosystem upon which our health and live hood depends World Bank, (1998) Pl. Technologies from outside has led to challenge in land management policy because it generates solid and liquid waste that pollutes the land environment as they are deposited inland. There should be land saving technology (LAST) in order to save environment from pollution.

LEE Surname Meaning and Family History

LEE Surname Meaning and Family History Lee is a surname with many possible meanings and origins: The surname LEA, including the common alternate spelling LEE, was originally given to a person who lived in or near a laye, from the Middle English meaning clearing in the woods.LEE is possibly a modern form of the ancient Irish name OLiathain.LEE means plum tree in Chinese. Lee was the royal surname during the Tang dynasty.LEE may be a place surname taken from any of the various towns or villages named Lee or Leigh. Lee is the 21st most popular surname in America based on analysis of the 2010 census. Surname Origin:  English, Irish, Chinese Alternate Surname Spellings:  LEA, LEH, LEIGH, LAY, LEES, LEESE, LEIGHE, LEAGH, LI Where Do People With the Lee Surname Live? According to surname distribution data from  Forebears, which also brings in data from Asian countries, the Lee surname is most prevalent in the United States (ranked 15th most common in the nation), but most dense, based on percentage of population, in Hong Kong, where it ranks as the 3rd most common last name. Lee also ranks 3rd in Malaysia and Singapore, 5th in Canada, and 7th in Australia. Famous People with the Surname LEE: Robert E. Lee: Confederate general in the U.S. Civil WarShelton Jackson Spike Lee: American film director, producer, writer, and actorBruce Lee: Chinese-American martial artist and actorJoseph Lee (1849–1905): African American inventorJim Lee: comic book artist and publisher Genealogy Resources for the Surname LEE: 100 Most Common U.S. Surnames and Their MeaningsSmith, Johnson, Williams, Jones, Brown.... Are you one of the millions of Americans sporting one of these top 100 common last names from the 2010 census? Lee DNA Surname ProjectThe purpose of this Lee DNA project is to bring together those genealogists who are researching the LEE surname and its variants (LEIGH, LEA, etc.), with an emphasis on the use of DNA testing. Lee Family Crest: A Common MisconceptionContrary to what many believe, there is no such thing as a Lee family crest or coat of arms for the Lee surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted.   Lee Family Genealogy ForumRead this archive of the former popular genealogy forum for the Lee surname to see what others who have been researching your ancestors have posted. This forum is no longer active. FamilySearch: LEE  GenealogyAccess over 9  million free historical records and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Lee surname and its variations on this free genealogy website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. LEE Surname and Family Mailing Lists RootsWeb hosts several free mailing lists for researchers of the Lee surname. In addition to joining a list, you can also browse or search the archives to explore over a decade of postings for the Lee surname. GeneaNet: Lee  RecordsGeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Lee  surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. Sources Cottle, Basil. Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Penguin Books, 1967.Menk, Lars. A Dictionary of German Jewish Surnames. Avotaynu, 2005.Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia.  Avotaynu, 2004.Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges. A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989.Hanks, Patrick. Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003.Hoffman, William F. Polish Surnames: Origins and Meanings.  Polish Genealogical Society, 1993.Rymut, Kazimierz. Nazwiska Polakow.  Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich - Wydawnictwo, 1991.Smith, Elsdon C. American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

6 Job Skills You Need To Be A Sales Associate

6 Job Skills You Need To Be A Sales Associate So you want to make it as a sales associate. If you’re looking for a position in the current economy, you’re going to want to be as marketable as possible to rise above your competition. Given the broad responsibilities that will likely end up being yours, you’ll want to be as versatile as possible; that way you can work anywhere. Here are some of the most important skills you’ll need. Keep in mind that many of these skills might be things you’ve already accumulated by work experience in other fields- or just your natural inclinations. Keep an open mind as to how to adapt your existing skills to the sales field- or how to beef up any arenas in which you may be lacking.1. OrganizationNot to be underestimated. You’ll be providing customer service, keeping track of customers and preferences, as well as the preferred filing, inventory, and documentation systems for your company. You might even be tasked with ensuring that merchandise is displayed well, which requires a certain amount of visual/spacial organizational skills.2. Money HandlingYou’ll want to be well versed in monetary transactions, particularly if you plan to be a cashier or handle payments. Be adept at money-tracking software programs, and have a bit of fast math in your head for making change. And learn to handle credit card transactions.3. CommunicationThis applies not just to within your colleagues, but also to your customer or client base. You’ll need to be good in all forms of communication: verbal, written, and visual. Communication skills are necessary for customer relations and also for surprising tasks like record keeping.4. SellingSales requires you to sell things. Bottom line. If you don’t have these skills, you’d better acquire them fast- or start looking for work in a different field. You’ll want to rely on your communication skills, plus your attention to detail, and you’ll also want to make sure you real ly know your product inside and out. Basic accounting and stock knowledge are a plus. But people skills, i.e. your interpersonal skills and fluency, are tantamount.5. LiteracyYou will need to write and speak, and you will be judged by your ability to do so clearly, effectively, and persuasively. You’ll also want to be literate in basic math and technology. Basically: never let a customer get the impression that they’re smarter than you at any point during your interaction. As the point of contact, and the liaison with other team members and your company at large, you’ll need to be effective when you transmit information.6. Personal MasteryIf you’re not the kind of person who’s always striving to be better- to look better, to think faster, to do better- then sales might not be the most ideal fit for you. Start cultivating your enthusiasm, flexibility, positivity, cleanliness, punctuality, team focus, politeness, persuasiveness, multitasking skills, friendliness, and efficiency. Keep honing your best personal attributes, working to compensate for weaknesses, learning new things, knowing more, doing more, developing your talents, and you’ll go far.

Harlem Renaissance Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Harlem Renaissance - Article Example It has also opened for future blacks and has a big impact on succeeding consciousness and black literature worldwide. As it is not limited to the district of Harlem in New York, it attracted a huge attention of talent and intellect and acted as the pillar of this awakening of culture. This renaissance has lots of black culture sources, basically of the Caribbean and America and manifests itself even outside Harlem. Being a symbolic capital, it fuels high popular nightlife and experimentation destination. It enables blacks to get publication opportunities and visibilities as ever before due to its location. Being in a city with an extraordinary decentred and diverse social atmosphere with no one cultural authority, it has still proved to be a rich place for experiment in culture. Primitivism affected the movement since it was established on earlier cultures and traditions of blacks (Lewis et al, pp 129). The avant-garde artists in Europe have drawn motivation from African view since they departed from real styles of representations towards sculpture and painting abstraction. Therefore, such experimental pride made black intellectuals view the heritage of Africa in a new

Women and institutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Women and institutions - Essay Example Most of the societies practice division of labor by sex and age. Traditional western models depict men as economic providers, since their role was dynamic while women were domestic consumers and their role was static (Bosen, 319, 1984). Anthropologist and other social scientist have discovered that men are only partial economic providers. The contribution of men towards women and children vary in different cultures and depends in variations of women work. Women make significant economic decisions not only for children but also for men and the society (Wardlow, 153). Therefore, the important issue in analyzing economic system of any society is by considering the division of labor, and ways the fruits and labor are shared. The early model of hunting society presented man as the chief provider and decision maker in the society. The early model of foragers as the blue print of sexual division of labor has been widely criticized (Merlan, 262, 1991). It was assumed that foragers depended on meat as their only food and men did all the hunting as women stayed in camps with children waiting for men to bring them food. Anthropologist challenged this model when they started analyzing the contribution of women in foragers’ society. After extensive research, there are four changes in the model. Meat was not the staple food in forages society compared to the total food intake (Stivens, 331, 1970). When meat was less important in the meal than plant food, men still went out to hunt while women provided food for their groups through their contributions. Even in the male hunting and women, gathering model contributes sexual separation in food contribution especially between animal and vegetable food. Division of labor between sexes is flexible and changing in individuals and cooperative efforts (Stivens, 330, 1970). There are some difficulties in separating horticultural and agricultural societies. The major difference is the

Determination of Density Essay Example for Free

Determination of Density Essay Purpose: To determine the densities of aluminum and zinc cylinders Density is the relationship between the mass of an object and its volume. Sometimes density can be easy to sense. If two objects have exactly the same shape and size, the denser one may feel heavier. If their densities are close together, it can be hard to tell the difference. It gets really tough if you are dealing with materials that have very different sizes or very different shapes. The only way to decide the density of an object is to measure its mass and its volume, then divide. Ex. Density= Mass/Volume Procedure: For Aluminum: 1. Weigh the aluminum cylinders individually on the analytical balance to the nearest 0.0001g and record the weights 2. With a vernier caliper, measure the diameter of each cylinder to the nearest 0.01cm and record 3. Again, using the vernier caliper, measure the length of each cylinder to the nearest 0.01cm and record 4. Compute the volume of each cylinder by using the formula V= (3.14d2h)/4 For Zinc: 1. Weigh the zinc cylinders individually on the top loading balance to the nearest 0.01g, and record the weights 2. Place enough water in a 100mL graduated cylinder to cover the object. Record the volume of water to the nearest 0.1mL by reading the bottom of the meniscus 3. Place the zinc cylinder in the graduated cylinder. Read the new volume and determine the volume for each piece of zinc Data: Density of Zinc Mass#1 104.0168gVolume#1 18mLDensity#1 5.7780g/cm3 Mass#2 92.8178gVolume#2 15mLDensity#2 6.1876g/cm3 Mass#3 72.2115gVolume#3 10mLDensity#3 7.2215g/cm3 Mass#4 55.3077gVolume#4 9mLDensity#4 6.1453g/cm3 Mass#5 35.2653gVolume#5 7mLDensity#5 5.0379g/cm3 Average Density 6.079g/cm3 Density of Aluminum Mass#1 26.48gVolume#1 6.28mLDensity#1 4.22g/cm3 Mass#2 21.50gVolume#2 5.01mLDensity#2 4.30g/cm3 Mass#3 17.58gVolume#3 4.14mLDensity#3 4.25g/cm3 Mass#4 13.10gVolume#4 2.92mLDensity#4 4.48g/cm3 Mass#5 8.68gVolume#5 2.04mLDensity#5 4.25g/cm3 Diameter = 1.025cm Average Density 4.29g/cm3 Conclusions: The densities of both objects were successfully determined. The average density of the aluminum cylinders was 4.29g/cm3, and the density of the zinc cylinders was 6.079g/cm3. Both of these values seem reasonable, and the zinc seems to be slightly heavier than the aluminum. The density of the zinc cylinders was found using the volume by displacement method, and the volume of the aluminum cylinders was found by the formula method V= (3.14d2h)/4. Problems with the equipment may have possibly introduced error into the measurements. The 100mL graduated cylinder used to find the volume of the zinc cylinders was only marked in 10mL increments, requiring estimation for levels in between. The volume of the aluminum cylinders required the use of the vernier caliper to measure the diameter and the length of each cylinder. Improper use of the vernier caliper may have altered the measurements received for the aluminum cylinders. The error introduced by these problems was slight, however, and the calculated densities for both objects are probably quite reliable.

2000 US Presidental Election Essay -- essays research papers

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The US Presidential Election of 2000 featured George W. Bush and Al Gore. It will go down in history as one of the most closest elections ¡Ã‚ ¦ in US history. It also goes down as one of the most controversial. The final decision was based on just a few hundred votes in Florida. The controversy began when the media prematurely declared the winner twice based solely on exit polls. They finally conceded that the Florida count was just too close to predict. It would take a month before the election was ultimately certified after numerous court challenges and vote recounts. Republican candidate George W. Bush was declared the winner of the Florida ¡Ã‚ ¦s 25 electoral votes. This was a victory by a razor thin margin of popular votes. It was just the fourth time in United States history that a candidate had won the Presidency while losing the popular vote. How could this be and furthermore, how could this happen? Is this just the tip of the iceberg that election ref orm is necessary? We need to insure that every American vote counts. This is supposed to be the basis of getting Americans to the voting booths according to our founding fathers. So what can be done to make sure that every vote DOES count? The Campaign   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Al Gore was chosen by the Democratic Party as their choice for nomination. Al Gore had previously served under US President, Bill Clinton, and was immediately the front runner as the party ¡Ã‚ ¦s top choice. His choice for Vice President was Senator Joseph Lieberman of Connecticut. Leiberman was also the first person of Jewish dissent to be name to a national party ticket. His choice of Lieberman was determined to have been made to separate Gore from the scandals of President Clinton. It was necessary for Al Gore to distance himself as far as possible from the inherited connections. He declared himself as defender of the people against large corporations, special interest groups, and the powerful. He pledged to extend Medicare to assist senior citizens purchase prescription drugs, push for a universal health care system, lower crime rates, and maintain the strength of our standing army.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Al Gore began his campaign trail by attacking George W. Bush ¡Ã‚ ¦s tax plans. A firm believer that these plans were only intended to benefit the most wealthy of America ¡Ã‚ ¦s citizens.... ...her. Why vote if their vote won ¡Ã‚ ¦t be counted? Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are both advantages and disadvantages in the current Electoral College System. Some of the advantages include the contribution of the cohesiveness of the country by requiring a distribution of the popular support to be elected president. It can also enhance the status of minority interest. It maintains the political stability of the nations with the encouragement of a two party system. It also maintains a federal system of government and representation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Disadvantages that are considered are the possibility of electing a minority president. Also the possibility of the Electoral College ¡Ã‚ ¦s role in suppressing voter turnout. It also could fail to accurately reflect the national popular choice.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It can be argued that we shouldn ¡Ã‚ ¦t change what our founding fathers intended. However, we must also remember that they denied the vote to blacks and women at first. They also didn ¡Ã‚ ¦t trust citizens to elect US Senators as well. Things change with time for good reasons. It is time to change the voting process in the United States today.

Extracurricular Activities

Contents 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 2. Literature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 3. Survey Findings†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 10 4. Analysis of Data†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦15 5. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 6. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 18 Effect of Extracurricular Activities on Academic Performance at NSU Introduction Music, volunteer work, community service, sports, debating, etc—all of these have an influence on how university students perform academically.The way students choose to spend their free time can affect their academic performance; it is not simply traditional in-class instruction that impacts academic achievement. â€Å"A study by the U. S. Department of Education revealed that students who participate in co-curricular activities are three times more likely to have a grade point average of 3. 0 or better† than students who do not participate in co-curricular activities (Stephens & Schaben, 2002, para. ). In addition to co-curricular or extracurricular activities, â€Å"analyses revealed that regardless of students’ background and prior achievement, various parenting, volunteering, and home learning activities positively influenced student grades† (Simon, 2001, para. 1). Numerous studies have examined the factors influencing students’ academic achievement, and many activities were found to have a significant influence.According to BUGS (Bringing Up Girls in Science), a program for young girls and their parents at the University of North Texas, â€Å"the home environment is among the most important influences on academic performance† (Bringing Up Girls in Science, 2003, para. 2). A correlation appears to exist between the activities that students choose outside of the classroom and their academic performance. One of the main controversies is the effect that television viewing of students has on their academic achievement. â€Å"The relationship between cognitive development and television viewing has been the one most widely studied.Investigators disagree about the effects of this relationship† (Shin, 2004, para. 2). The amount and quality of television viewing and family involvement are not the only influences of academic performance. The effects of music and sports are also controversial in their relation to academic performance. University Deans are interested in the relationship between academic achievement and participation in interscholastic sports at university level these days implying that sports do have some sort of influence on how students perform academically.All of these activities appear to have some sort of effect on students’ academic performance; however, the issue of whether they benefit or hinder is unknown. The research would be described as a descriptive study because it observes behaviors â€Å"as they occur naturally, describes behav ior, explores a phenomenon, and tests hypotheses about behavior† (Brown, Cozby, Kee, & Worden, 1999, p. 75). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine whether or not the club activities that students of North South University (where I study currently) take part in have an effect on their academic performance.I believe that extracurricular activities (club activities) have a positive effect on a student’s academic performance at NSU. | | | | Literature Review The History of Extracurricular Activities The development of extracurricular activities was slow in the beginning, with many seeing it simply as a fad that would pass and quickly fade out of style (Millard, 1930, p. 11). One of the early philosophies behind extracurricular activities was that they should, wherever at all possible, â€Å"grow out of curricular activities and return to curricular activities to enrich them† (Millard, 1930, p. 2). Eventually people, including educators, began to see th e benefits of extracurricular activities, but it took a while to inure themselves to them. In fact, before 1900, educators were skeptical of participation in extracurricular activities, believing that â€Å"school should focus solely on narrowly defined academic outcomes. Non-academic activities were viewed as being primarily recreational and therefore were detrimental to academic achievement, and consequently were discouraged† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 5).Deam and Bear, early experts on extracurricular activities, said, â€Å"Extracurricular activities supplement and extend those contacts and experiences found in the more formal part of the program of the school day† (Millard, 1930, p. 16). It was not until recently that â€Å"educational practitioners and researchers have taken a more positive perspective, arguing that extracurricular activities may have positive effects on life skills and may also benefit academic accomplishments† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002 , para. 5). It is obvious that extracurricular activities have an impact on academic performance and education ever since their inception.The question is, how are extracurricular activities affecting academic performance today? Extracurricular Activities and Academic Performance Numerous studies have been conducted concerning the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance. Total extracurricular activity participation (TEAP), or participation in extracurricular activities in general, is associated with an improved grade point average, higher educational aspirations, increased college attendance, and reduced absenteeism† (Broh, 2002, para. 8).Guest and Schneider (2003), in looking at the previous research on this subject said, â€Å"Researchers have found positive associations between extracurricular participation and academic achievement† (para. 2). Although researchers agree that extracurricular activities do, in fact, influence academic pe rformance, the specific effect that various activities produce is debated. One study, conducted by the National Educational Longitudinal Study, found that â€Å"participation in some activities improves achievement, while participation in others diminishes achievement† (Broh, 2002, para. ). Many extracurricular activities have proven to be beneficial in building and strengthening academic achievement, even if the activities are not obviously related to academic subjects (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 9). â€Å"A number of studies revealed that students participating in extracurricular activities did better academically than students who did not participate† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 7). Researchers have particularly studied the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance in adolescents.One study found that â€Å"adolescents who participated in extracurricular activities reported higher grades, more positive attitudes toward school, an d higher academic aspirations† (Darling, Caldwell, & Smith, 2005, para. 1). Darling, Caldwell, and Smith (2005) conducted a longitudinal study concerning extracurricular activities and their effect on various aspects of development, including academic performance. A survey containing a list of twenty different extracurricular activities was distributed to students; they were asked to check which extracurricular activities they participated in that year.Demographic questions, such as their favorite activity, gender, and ethnicity were asked in order to take the social factors and influences into account when calculating the results. The students were also asked what their academic goals were and their grade point average. The results showed that the students who participated in school-based extracurricular activities had higher grades, higher academic aspirations, and better academic attitudes than those who were not involved in extracurricular activities at all (Para. 3-35). S ocial Influences of Extracurricular Activities and Academic Performance Numerous studies indicate that extracurricular activities do, in fact, promote academic performance in students. However, are the extracurricular activities themselves, regardless of outside or social influences, responsible for this impact on academic performance? Guest and Schneider (2003) conducted research on what influence various social factors had on the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance.They found that most of the studies previously conducted on the relationship between these two factors had not taken into account the meaning that participation in extracurricular activities â€Å"[held] for individual participants within distinct social contexts† (Para. 3). They believed that every school and community assigned certain values to the various activities, putting more importance on some over others. The value that is placed on each activity affects the relations hip between that specific activity and academic performance (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. ). Guest and Schneider (2003) concluded that there are three factors which influence this relationship. These factors are the â€Å"what,† the â€Å"where,† and the â€Å"when† (Para. 7). The â€Å"what† suggests that â€Å"the type of participation or activity undertaken influences developmental outcomes† (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 8). The â€Å"where† suggests â€Å"that the school and community context in which extracurricular activity takes place matters† (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 9).Finally, the â€Å"when† suggests â€Å"that the developmental and historical context in which extracurricular participation takes place influences both how it is valued and its effects on subsequent development† (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 10). All three of these factors work together to influence the relationship between participa tion in extracurricular activities and academic performance, because each one places a different value both on activities and academics. Formal Versus Informal Extracurricular Activities Some researchers have divided extracurricular activities into informal and formal activities.The formal activities include activities which are relatively structured, such as participating in athletics or learning to play a musical instrument. Informal activities, on the other hand, also known as leisure activities, include less structured activities, such as watching television. Some literature on leisure studies has â€Å"suggested that formal and informal activity settings have different influences on motivation and feelings of competence,† two factors which influence academic performance (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 8).One study found â€Å"that more time in leisure activities was related to poorer academic grades, poorer work habits, and poorer emotional adjustments,† while mor e time in â€Å"structured groups and less time watching TV were associated with higher test scores and school grades† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 15). Guest and Schneider (2003), in their study, found that â€Å"the type of participation or activity undertaken influences developmental outcomes (Para. 8). This involves the â€Å"what† factor and is the concern of this research project.There have been many studies conducted on the influence that extracurricular activities have on academic performance. Their effects have â€Å"differed substantially for different activities. There were a total of seventy-six statistically significant effects, fifty-eight positive and eighteen negative† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 11). The Relationship Between Volunteer Work and Academic Performance A dearth of literature on the relationship between volunteering and academic achievement exists; nevertheless, it is becoming more popular in academic settings as a way of improv ing academics, as well as society.Many schools now require their students to complete a mandatory number of hours of volunteer work per year or semester. Schools have implemented â€Å"service learning,† which incorporates community service and volunteer work into the curriculum, because it has been proven to have a positive effect on academic performance (Hinck & Brandell, 1999). Service learning â€Å"can and does have a positive impact on the psychological, social, and intellectual development of adolescents who participate† (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 11).Usually the services performed are related, in some way, to some academic subject, but most forms of volunteer work and community service can be tied to academics in one way or another. As a result, â€Å"more and more studies are finding that increased academic growth is the result when service is combined with intellectual content† (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 17). One study, conducted on over 2,000 students enrolled in kindergarten through twelfth grade, found that student performance improved as a result of service learning (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 17).The Texas Council of Chief State School Officers reported that â€Å"involvement in service learning affects students’ higher level thinking skills, motivation to learn, application of learning, insight, and basic academic skills† (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 18). One study performed to determine the relationship between academic performance and community partnerships found that â€Å"regardless of students’ background and prior achievement, volunteering activities positively influenced student grades, course credits completed, attendance, behavior, and school preparedness† (Simon, 2001, para. 1).All of the literature concerning the relationship between academic performance and volunteering presented a positive relationship. (Citied in Fujita, 2005) Survey Findings Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Analysis of Data When asked whether their CGPA improves when they are actively involved with club activities and events, eighty percent members of North South University Social Services Club, sixty percent members of North South University Sports Club and eighty percent members of North South University Shangskritik Shanghatan responded with ‘no’.They also answered ‘negative’ when asked what kind of effect their chosen extracurricular activity has on their academic performance in the same percentages. This clearly shows that the majority of the members of these three clubs feel that they perform poor in their academics when they are involved with club works. The activities of the club, although it may provide satisfaction to the active members, it does not help them with their studies. The courses they take at NSU have no relation with the activities of the club.Therefore, they get ex hausted after doing the activities of the club and do not get time to concentrate on their studies. And also, since the activities of these three clubs have no relation with the courses offered at NSU, it does not help them with their academics in any way. However, a totally different picture can be seen when the responses of the active members of Young Economists’ Forum (YEF) and North South University English Club are analyzed. Here, it should be mentioned that all the members who filled up the questionnaires from these two clubs were from the Economics and English departments respectively.Although it is not mandatory for the members of YEF to be from the economics department and for the members of English club to be from the English department, my sample included all YEF members from the Economics department and all English Club members from the English department. So, this is one of the major reasons for eighty percent of YEF members and sixty percent of English Club memb ers to respond with ‘yes’ when asked whether their CGPA improves when they are actively involved with club activities.Respectively, they also answered ‘positive’ with the same percentage when asked what kind of influence their chosen ECA has on their academic performance. This shows that since the extracurricular activities chosen by the members of YEF and English Club from the selected sample are related to their field of study at NSU, they feel their CGPA improves and that the activities have a positive effect on their academic performance. Finally, when the CGPA of the total sample is analyzed, it can be seen that sixty percent of the total sample have a bad CGPA between 1. 05 and 3. 00.The rest forty percent have a very good CGPA between 3. 01 and 3. 97. The students with good CGPA belong to clubs which organize activities related to the student’s academics. This further strengthens the argument that students who are involved in club activities w hich complements their studies perform well in their studies than those students whose club activities are unrelated to their academics. Conclusion From the conducted survey, it can be concluded that my hypothesis is partially proved correct. Extracurricular activities in the form of club activities do have a positive effect on a student’s academic performance at NSU.However, the club activity must be related to the courses taken by the students or their field of study. It helps the students perform better in their academics and score better grades if the club activities they are involved in helps broaden the students’ knowledge about his chosen field of study at NSU. If students’ choose to become a member of a club whose activities have no relation with their academics, although they may become very skilled at those activities but this will hamper their study, and their academic performance will go down in the form of a low CGPA.All being said and done, student s should not base their decision of getting involved in club activities or participating in any other extracurricular activity from the findings of this study. This research is only a small attempt to find out the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance at NSU. Students should set their priorities themselves and choose their extracurricular activity accordingly or choose them according to their interests. They have the liberty to do so as they are mature adults.However, it would be wise if students chose their extracurricular activities carefully. At the end of the day, academic performance matters the most. NSU’s reputation depends on the quality of the students who study here. If NSU is filled with active ‘clubbers’ who are very good at their club activities but poor in studies then NSU’s reputation will go down in the eyes of all who see NSU as a place of quality higher education. References Bringing Up Girls in Science. (2003). Bugs—parents (University of North Texas). Retrieved February 26, 2005, from http://www. oe. unt. edu/bugs/parents. index. html Broh, B. A. (2002, January). Linking extracurricular programming to academic achievement: Who benefits and why? [Electronic version]. Sociology of Education, 75, 69-96. Brown, K. W. , Cozby, P. C. , Kee, D. W. , & Worden, P. E. (1999). Research methods in human development. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publications. Darling, N. , Caldwell, L. L. , & Smith, R. (2005). Participation in school-based extracurricular activities and adolescent adjustment [Electronic version].Journal of Leisure Research, 37, 51-77. Fujita, K. (2005). The Effects of Extracurricular Activities on the Academic Performance of Junior High Students [Electronic version]. Undergraduate Research Community. Available at http://kon. org/urc/v5/fujita. html Guest, A. , & Schneider, B. (2003, April). Adolescents’ extracurricular participation in context: The mediating effe cts of schools, communities, and identity [Electronic version]. Sociology of Education, 76, 89-105. Hinck, S. S. , & Brandell, M.E. (1999, October). Service learning: Facilitating academic learning and character development [Electronic version]. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 83, 16-25. Marsh, H. W. , & Kleitman, S. (2002). Extracurricular activities: The good, the bad, and the nonlinear [Electronic version]. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 464-512. Millard, C. V. (1930). The organization and administration of extra curricular activities. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co. Shin, N. (2004, December).Exploring pathways from television viewing to academic achievement in school age children [Electronic version]. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 165, 367-382. Simon, B. S. (2001, October). Family involvement in high school: Predictors and effects [Electronic version]. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 85, 8-20. Stephens, L. J. , & S chaben, L. A. (2002, March). The effect of interscholastic sports participation on academic achievement of middle level school activities [Electronic version]. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 86, 34-42.

College Campus Essay

In this assignment we are going to design a campus network. Delta Community College (DCC) is a small college. It is attended by 600 full and part time students. The students do not live on campus. There are three dormitories for the students and each dorm can accommodate 400 students. Distance from the college campus to the dorms are: †¢ Dorm1 College Campus = 22KM †¢ Dorm2 College Campus = 5KM †¢ Dorm3 College Campus = 15KM Numbers of students are expected to be doubled every 4 years. There are 4 departments: †¢ Arts and Humanities †¢ Business †¢ Social Sciences †¢ Mathematics. Every department has an average of 150 Students and an average of 10 professors each. There are approximately 20 Administrative personnel available. It is expected that everyone in the college should get access to the network. Students when they are in the dormitory should also get access to the college network. We need to design a computer network so that it is good for next 4 years. Now do the following: A. Every department and dormitory should be put on their own subnet. When you design the subnetting make sure your design support the following: 10 Points i. 3 subnets for 3 dorms each should support 400 hosts ii. Different subnets for 4 departments †¢ Students and professors should be in different subnets. There are 300 students and 10 professors per department iii. A subnet for administrative department which should support at least 30 hosts The assigned IP address is 10. 5. 3. 0/20. So do you think using this IP address we can design all the necessary subnets with at least the required numbers of hosts? If yes then design the subnet structure by showing the assigned IP address range for every subnet. If no then say why. B. Apply a hierarchical approach to design this network. Your design should include:7 Points i. Core Layer ii. Distribution Layer iii. Access Layer In the designed network you need to mention what network device such as: cables, hubs, switches, routers etc. you are going to include in each layer. C. Dormitories are connected to the campus network via Single Mode Fiber Optic Cable. Because of attenuation loss we need to splice the fiber optic cable every 10km. if the splicing loss is: 0. 35dB then find out total splicing loss for every connection to each dormitory. 3 Points Note: There is at least 500m distance from the main server to different departments. So choose proper cabling when you connect the departments to the main server.

Qualitative Research Definition and Methods

Qualitative Research Definition and Methods Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help us understand social life through the study of targeted populations or places. People often frame it in opposition to quantitative research, which uses numerical data to identify large-scale trends and employs statistical operations to determine causal and correlative relationships between variables. Within sociology, qualitative research is typically focused on the micro-level of social interaction that composes everyday life, whereas quantitative research typically focuses on macro-level trends and phenomena. Methods of qualitative research include  observation and immersion, interviews, open-ended surveys, focus groups, content analysis of visual and textual materials, and oral history.   The Purpose of Qualitative Research Qualitative research has a long history in sociology and has been used within it for as long as the field itself has existed. This type of research has long appealed to social scientists because it allows the research to investigate the meanings that people attribute to their behavior, actions, and interactions with others. While quantitative research is useful for identifying relationships between variables, like, for example, the connection between poverty and racial hate, it is qualitative research that can illuminate why this connection exists by going directly to the source the people themselves. Qualitative research is designed to reveal the meaning that informs the action or outcomes that are typically measured by quantitative research. So, qualitative researchers investigate  meanings, interpretations, symbols, and the  processes and relations of social life. What this type of research produces is descriptive data that the researcher must then interpret using rigorous and systematic methods of transcribing, coding, and analysis of trends and themes. Because its focus is everyday life and peoples experiences, qualitative research lends itself well to creating new theories using the inductive method, which can then be tested with further research. Methods of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers  use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth perceptions and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events. Their findings are collected through a variety of methods, and often, a researcher will use at least two or several of the following while conducting a qualitative study. Direct observation:  With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of research is often unknown to those under study, and as such, must be conducted in public settings where people do not have a reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways in which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.Open-ended surveys: While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of qualitative data. For example, a survey might be used to investigate not just which political candidates voters chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.Focus group: In a focus group, a researcher engages a small group of participants in a conversation designed to generate data relevant to the research question. Focus groups can contain anywhere from 5 to 15 participants. Social scientists often use them  in studies that examine an event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common in market research too. In-depth interviews: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to evolve based on how the participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified certain topics of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows the participant to guide it.Oral history: The oral history method is used to create a historical account of an event, group, or community, and typically involves a series of in-depth interviews conducted with one or multiple participants over an extended period of time.Participant observation:  This method is similar to observation, however with this one, the researcher also participates in the action or events in order to not only observe others but to gain the first-hand experience in the setting.Ethnographic observation:  Ethnographic observati on is the most intensive and in-depth observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a researcher fully immerses herself into the research setting and lives among the participants as one of them for anywhere from months to years.  By doing this, the researcher attempts to experience day-to-day existence from the viewpoints of those studied in order to develop in-depth and long-term accounts of the community, events, or trends under observation. Content analysis:  This method is used by sociologists to analyze social life by interpreting words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural products and media. The researchers look at how the words and images are used, and the context in which they are used to draw inferences about the underlying culture. In the last decade, content analysis of digital material, especially that generated by social media users, has become a popular technique within the social sciences. While much of the data generated by qualitative research is coded and analyzed using just the researchers eyes and brain, the use of computer software to do these processes is increasingly popular within the social sciences. Pros and Cons of Qualitative Research Qualitative research has both benefits and drawbacks. On the plus side, it creates an in-depth understanding of the attitudes, behaviors, interactions, events, and social processes that comprise everyday life. In doing so, it helps social scientists understand how everyday life is influenced by society-wide things like social structure, social order, and all kinds of social forces. This set of methods also has the benefit of being flexible and easily adaptable to changes in the research environment and can be conducted with minimal cost in many cases. The downsides of qualitative research are that its scope is fairly limited so its findings are not always widely generalizable. Researchers also have to use caution with these methods to ensure that they themselves do not influence the data in ways that significantly change it and that they do not bring undue personal bias to their interpretation of the findings. Fortunately, qualitative researchers receive rigorous training designed to eliminate or reduce these types of research bias.

Battle of Hobkirks Hill in the American Revolution

Battle of Hobkirk's Hill in the American Revolution Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Conflict Date: The Battle of Hobkirks Hill was fought April 25, 1781, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Armies Commanders Americans Major General Nathanael Greene1,551 men British Lord Rawdon900 men Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Background: Having won a costly engagement against Major General Nathanael Greenes army at the Battle of Guilford Court House in March 1781, Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis paused to rest his weary men. Though he initially wished to pursue the retreating Americans, his supply situation would not allow for further campaigning in the region. As a result, Cornwallis elected to move towards the coast with the goal of reaching Wilmington, NC. Once there, his men could be re-provisioned by sea. Learning of Cornwallis actions, Greene cautiously followed the British east until April 8. Turning south, he then pressed into South Carolina with the goal of striking at British outposts in the interior and reclaiming area for the American cause. Hampered by a lack of food, Cornwallis let the Americans go and trusted that Lord Francis Rawdon, who commanded around 8,000 men in South Carolina and Georgia, could deal with the threat. Though Rawdon did lead a large force, the bulk of it consisted of Loyalist units which were scattered across the interior in small garrisons. The largest of these forces numbered 900 men and was based at his headquarters in Camden, SC. Crossing the border, Greene detached Lieutenant Colonel Henry Light Horse Harry Lee with orders to unite with Brigaider General Francis Marion for a combined attack on Fort Watson. This combined force succeeded in carrying the post on April 23. As Lee and Marion conducted their operation, Greene sought to strike at the heart of the British outpost line by attacking Camden. Moving quickly, he hoped to catch the garrison by surprise. Arriving near Camden on April 20, Greene was disappointed to find Rawdons men on alert and the towns defenses fully manned. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Greenes Position: Lacking sufficient men to besiege Camden, Green retreated a short distance north and occupied a strong position on Hobkirks Hill, approximately three miles south of the Camden battlefield where Major General Horatio Gates had been defeated the previous year. It was Greenes hope that he could draw Rawdon out of the Camden defenses and defeat him in open battle. As Greene made his preparations, he dispatched Colonel Edward Carrington with most of the armys artillery to intercept a British column that was reportedly moving to reinforce Rawdon. When the enemy did not arrive, Carrington received orders to return to Hobkirks Hill on April 24. The next morning, an American deserter incorrectly informed Rawdon that Greene had no artillery. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Rawdon Attacks: Responding to this information and concerned that Marion and Lee might reinforce Greene, Rawdon began making plans to attack the American army. Seeking the element of surprise, the British troops skirted west bank of Little Pine Tree Creek swamp and moved through wooded terrain to avoid being spotted. Around 10:00 AM, British forces encountered the American picket line. Led by Captain Robert Kirkwood, the American pickets put up stiff resistance and allowed Greene time to form for battle. Deploying his men to meet the threat, Greene placed Lieutenant Colonel Richard Campbells 2nd Virginia Regiment and Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Hawes 1st Virginia Regiment on the American right while Colonel John Gunbys 1st Maryland Regiment and Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Fords 2nd Maryland Regiment formed the left. As these forces took position, Greene held the militia in reserve and instructed Lieutenant Colonel William Washington to take his command of 80 dragoons around the British right to attack their rear. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - The American Left Collapses: Moving forward on a narrow front, Rawdon overwhelmed the pickets and forced Kirkwoods men to fall back. Seeing the nature of the British attack, Greene sought to overlap Rawdons flanks with his larger force. To accomplish this, he directed the 2nd Virginia and 2nd Maryland to wheel inward to attack the British flanks while ordering the 1st Virginia and 1st Maryland to advance. Reacting to Greenes orders, Rawdon brought up the Volunteers of Ireland from his reserve to extend his lines. As the two sides neared, Captain William Beatty, commanding the right-most company of the 1st Maryland, fell dead. His loss caused confusion in the ranks and the regiments front began to break. Rather than press on, Gunby halted the regiment with the goal of reforming the line. This decision exposed the flanks of the 2nd Maryland and 1st Virginia. To make the situation on the American left worse, Ford soon fell mortally wounded. Seeing the Maryland troops in disarray, Rawdon pressed his attack and shattered the 1st Maryland. Under pressure and without its commander, the 2nd Maryland fired a volley or two and began falling back. On the American right, Campbells men began to fall apart leaving Hawes troops as the only intact American regiment on the field. Seeing that the battle was lost, Greene directed his remaining men to retreat north and ordered Hawes to cover the withdrawal. Circling around the enemy, Washingtons dragoons approached as the fighting was ending. Joining the battle, his horsemen briefly captured around 200 of Rawdons men before assisting in evacuating the American artillery. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Aftermath: Departing the field, Greene moved his men north to the old Camden battlefield while Rawdon elected to fall back to his garrison. A bitter defeat for Greene as he had invited battle and been confident of victory, he briefly thought about abandoning his campaign in South Carolina. In the fighting at the Battle of Hobkirks Hill Green lost 19 killed, 113 wounded, 89 captured, and 50 missing while Rawdon sustained 39 killed, 210 wounded, and 12 missing. Over the next few weeks both commanders reassessed the strategic situation. While Greene elected to persevere with his operations, Rawdon saw that many of his outposts, including Camden, were becoming untenable. As a result, he began a systematic withdrawal from the interior which resulted in British troops being concentrated at Charleston and Savannah by August. The following month, Greene fought the Battle of Eutaw Springs which proved the last major engagement of the conflict in the South.

Tardiness to Class Interpretations and Recommendations Essay

Tardiness to Class Interpretations and Recommendations - Essay Example Sports, theater, and history all show low levels of tardiness, while gym, math, and science show the highest rates of tardiness. A third trend is between GPA and tardiness—the two are inversely proportionate. Students between the GPA 3.5-4.0 have the lowest rates of tardiness, while the tardiness rate rises as the GPA gets lower. Based on the data, many students clearly have difficulty attending class on time. The problem of tardiness should not be undermined. William Chandler Bagley explains in the classic education book, Classroom Management: its Principles and Technique, â€Å"the habit of tardiness is worse than occasional absence because it is apt to be carried over into later life and to cause the individual no end of trouble in its eradication† (77). As such, the problem of tardiness demands remedies. While students may currently arrive late to class with few repercussions, such consequences will be more severe as the students enter into adulthood and the workforce. The trend between tardiness and grade levels can be explained as a result of â€Å"senioritis.† Though this term has been used somewhat lightly, schools are beginning to show little tolerance for seniors who show a noticeable disinterest in their studies. USA Today writes in one article, â€Å"this year there may be serious consequences—including having college acceptance withdrawn—for those who don’t finish with a strong academic record† (Mamlet and VanDeVelde 1). The article further recommends parent intervention if they notice signs of increased absence or tardiness. Seniors who believe their academic efforts are pointless in the last semester are more likely to be late to class than juniors, whose academic performance is being judged by universities. The link between tardiness and type of class is likely due to a student’s interest in the course. If a pupil is genuinely interested in the material, they will want to show up on

Visual Depictions of Bodies in Nazi Ideology Term Paper

Visual Depictions of Bodies in Nazi Ideology - Term Paper Example The physical effects of starvation of the body include body wasting, susceptibility to disease and eventually death. Starvation physically transforms its victims. Jews were the victims of Nazis food policies. If a body is starved, it will compensate for lack of calorie intake by consuming body fat. Bodies experience rapid weight loss where even their clothing becomes too big for their bodies. One of the articles which record the effects of starvation to bodies of the Jews was Oskar Rosenfeld Ghetto diaries. However, a sign of physical transformation of ghetto inhabitants was an advertisement recorded in the chronicle stating, â€Å"Men’s Collars Taken in a barber shop at 13 Lutomierska Street†. In his Ghetto diaries, Rosenfeld further observed that in the beginning, the abdomen gets loose and eventually sags. A description of victims of starvation in the Divine Comedy as quoted by Piero Camporesi in his work Bread of Dreams similarly took note of the sagging, empty stom ach of the starving further observing how on victims of hunger, â€Å"The flesh becomes thin, and remains attached to the bones like a spider-web.† The Nazis were aware of the murderous effects of their food policies, and they allowed those policies to continue, resulting in the mass execution of the Jews in the ghettos. Nazi ideologues including Himmler, food distribution bureaucrats, regular and special police, among others all played a role in implementing the slow process of extermination of the Jewish people through man-made famine.

Primary Source on Female Workers of Lowell (1836) Essay

Primary Source on Female Workers of Lowell (1836) - Essay Example However, women had some independence since they had the opportunity to work while the men stayed home and practiced farming. They were able to earn their own income through the jobs they did at the factory, and lived on their own, which gave them a feeling of liberation. This article was written with a purpose of exploring the life of the women who worked at the mills. Examine their living conditions at the boarding houses, where they slept six in a room, which were poorly ventilated (NWHM 1). The author has taken the point of view of bringing out the strong woman despite the challenges they faced. The author talks about the challenges the women went through, and add to it the brave steps they took towards liberating themselves and finally succeeded. The author has made an assumption that if the women of Lowell had not taken that step of fighting for their liberty, then they would have remained in the poor conditions that they were in before (NWHM 1). This argument is true since, before the women of Lowell decided to take the step of fighting for their liberation, their life was like that of a slave. They lived in poor condition, worked for long hours, and were paid little wages. Even, though, they worked, they did not get a fair return for their hard work. Instead of the job, they were doing giving them a feeling of liberation; it made them felt more enslaved (NWHM

Computational Chemistry for Drug Discovery

Computational Chemistry for Drug Discovery Computer Chemistry Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computers to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses the results of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into efficient programs, to calculate the structures of molecules and solids. In theoritcal chemistry, chemists, physicist and mathematics develop algorithms and computer programs to predict atomic and molecular properties and reaction paths for chemical reactions. Computational chemists, in contrast, may simply apply existing computer programs and methodologies to specify chemical question. There are two different aspects to computational chemistry. Computational studies can be carried out in order to find a starting point for a laboratory synthesis, or to assist in understanding experimental data, such as the position and source of spectroscopic peaks. Computational studies can be used to predict the possibility of so far entirely unknown molecules or to explore reaction mechanisms that are not readily studied by experimental means. Computer-aided drug discovery/design methods have played a major role in the development of therapeutically important small molecules for over 2-3 decades [133]. Over the past couple of decades, many powerful standalone tools for computer-aided drug discovery have been developed [134]. In silico metabolism After adopting combinatorial chemistry and high throughput biological screening in the past couple of decades, the pharmaceutical industry generated a large collection of potent and selective compounds for numerous targets. However, to become an optimal drug, in addition to potency and selectivity, a compound must have appropriate ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excreation), safety and developability characteristics. Relaying solely on potency in the early stage of drug discovery can result in disproportionate attrition after clinical candidate selection contributing to the exorbitant costs of discovering and developing drugs. Only about one in ten of those diligently chosen, highly potent and selective candidates that enter development reach the market often due to inadequate ADME properties. Therefore, it is extremely important to consider the ADME characteristics of compounds earlier in the discovery process to wager bets on compounds that have a greater potential t o survive the development and clinical trail stage of drug development. Increasing the odds of success to one in five (instead of ten) would reduce the total cost of bringing a new therapeutic to the market by 33%. Experimental determination of ADME and pharmacokinetic (PK) characteristics is both expensive and time consuming, and is not practical for large numbers of compounds, especially when the pharmaceutical industry is under severe pressure to cut costs and improve efficiency. The Price tag to support various ongoing discovery projects in pharmaceutical company for synthesis and high throughput measurement of permeability, solubility, metabolic stability and acute toxicity can run into millions of dollars. Therefore, much attention is being focused on the application of in silico screens to reliability predict ADME attributes solely from molecular structure. In silico prediction of ADME properties will not only reduce cost and development cycle times by wisely directing resources to essential experimental testing, but also bring forward their consideration earlier at the lead generation stage when compounds are being synthesized and tested almost exclusively to meet pharmacological target potency levels. At the cost of experimental results indicated above, a mere 10-20 % reduction in high throughput experimental measurement of permeability, solubility, metabolic stability, acute toxicity through the use of in silico screens can lead to significant savings. Further, application of in silico screens offers an ideal ‘fail-early-fail-cheaply’ strategy for drug discovery because their application requires nothing more than inputting the basic structural information of a compoun d into a validation model. Metabolic Stability Measurement in Drug Discovery At most major pharmaceutical companies, metabolic stability assays are conducted at the first investigation into the metabolism of a compound. These in vitro assays generally utilize liver microsomes and/or hepatocytes to furnish important information about the rate and/or metabolism. In vitro metabolic studies are important in optimizing pharmacokinetic properties such as in vivo half life, maximum concentration and systemic exposure, because rapid metabolism is often a key factor contributing to poor exposure. The metabolic stability data is helpful for ranking molecules with respect to their ability to resist metabolism. Though high-throughput automated metabolic stability assay systems have been developed by the major pharmaceutical companies, screening a large number of compounds is still intensive. Thus, in silico prediction of metabolic stability can be used to rationalize experimental testing and have significant resources. Further, these models allow for prediction of metabolic stability for virtual libraries, thus bringing forwarded their consideration earlier to hit-to-lead stage. In silico Models for Metabolism Studies There are several types of in silico tools available for investigations into metabolism. These include knowledge based systems (metabolism databases) rules based or expert systems and quantity structure properties relationship (QSPR) and enzyme structure modeling systems. At its simplest, the partition coefficients, Log P (or its computed equivalent), of a drug in the n-octanol-water system has been shown to loosely correlate with the metabolic stability of a compound. As in silico calculations of Log P values have become readily available, they are being implemented in many of the current metabolism prediction packages. The earliest in silico metabolism tools were the metabolic reaction databases. In principle, these are databases with the published metabolic reactions and structure of parent compounds and their metabolites. Some of these allow creation of corporate metabolic databases as well. In most cases, these databases can be searched for specific biotransformation (by structure and substructure), biotransformation keywords, and by other user-defined fileds. The key advantage of this knowledge based in silico systems is that they include detailed metabolism findings and original references. Prediction of Metabolites The above mentioned knowledge based systems provided the groundwork for the development of rules based in silico predictors of metabolites, also called expert systems. Commercial rules based programs such as METEOR, META and MetabolExpert iteratively interrogate the chemical bonds of a molecule and apply programmed biotransformation rules in a predetermined hierarchy. As one can imagine, without means of terminating the metabolism tree a very large numbers of metabolites will be generated of predicted. Several of these programs allow the user to specify the number of levels of biotransformation or may use a LogP calculation to terminate the biotransformation process. Prediction of Sites of Metabolism The mechanism of oxidation by CYPs is though to be constant across all CUPS. One of the most important steps in the oxidation of drugs (by CYPs) is the ability of the perferyl oxy species (FeO+) to carry out a one-electron oxidation through the abstraction of hydrogen atoms. In silico packages such as Admensa, COMPACT and Metasite calculate the likehood of abstracting a hydrogen atom from all sites on a molecule, and then quantify which sites are most likely to be oxidized. The greatest advantage of these types of predictions is the ability to quantify the most likely major â€Å"hot spots† on the molecule. Prediction of Substrate Binding The ability of a molecule to properly dock on the active site of enzyme plays a major role in accurately determining the site(s) of metabolism on a molecule. Therefore, modeling of the P450 active sites has long been a goal for metabolism prediction. Some of the first attempts to model the active site of metabolizing enzymes used pharmacophore, site directed mutagenesis, and protein homology. Using homology models built from bacterial and mammalian P450s, in silico studies of docking potential substrates into the active site have been performed with mixed success. Now that the crystal structure for human CYP3A4, CYP2C9, CYP2C8 and CYP2A6 are available docking experiment with these models should more reliably predict the sites of metabolism on a molecule that the predictions form the homology models. Prediction of Metabolic Inhibition One of the causes of drug-drug interactions is the inhibition of metabolic pathways. Enzyme inhibition by a drug leads to a decrease in metabolism and intrinsic clearances, and an alteration in pharmacokinetics of a co-administered drug. Any knowledge around the potential of drug-drug interactions is useful for a quantitative assessment of the ability a new molecular entity to inhibit the metabolism of another drug. In silico methods to predict drug-drug interactions are mostly limited to competitive inhibitors because they rely primarily on the binding models in the used as templates with alignment and orientation of core structure in an active site. However, the quality of prediction depends on the structural similarity to the molecules that were used to build the model. Inhibitors of CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 have been predicted using the CoMFA method. For inhibitors of CYP3A4, CYP2C9 and CYP2D6, methods such as CATALYST and GRIND have been used to reduce the bias in the alignment of inhibitors. Prediction of Enzyme Induction The induction of drug metabolizing enzymes is an additional way in which co-administered drugs can affect the clearance and pharmacokinetics of a given drug. Induction or increased expression of the drug metabolizing enzymes leads to an increase in the rate of metabolism and ultimately, to increase intrinsic clearance. Therefore, enzyme induction leads to decreased drug exposure which may results in therapeutic failure. Most often, the induction of enzymes occurs through the activation of nuclear receptors such as the Arylhydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), the Pregnane X receptor (PXR) and the constitutive Androstane Receptor (ACR). The activation of nuclear receptors PXR and CAR are responsible for the induction of several drug metabolizing enzymes including CYP3A, UGT1A1, SULT1A and CYP2C9. On the other hand, induction of CYP1A, SULT1A1 and UGT1A1 has been associated with activation of AhR. Prediction of Metabolic Stability As mentioned above, metabolic stability influences both oral bioavailability and half life of a drug. There is good correlation between in vitro metabolic stability and in vivo clearance. Therefore, the assessment of metabolic stability of compounds is being demanded and earlier in discovery projects. To meet these needs, in silico models are commonly employed. As described above, many different in silico tools focused on studying different aspects of metabolism have been developed. In our experience, the choice of the in silico tool by a user should primarily be guided by the type of information and level of accuracy that is desired. It is imperative that the developers of these in silico tools continually refine and validate them to reliably predict and quantify the metabolic fate of drug in humans. On the other hand, the chemists, biologists and ADME scientist on project teams to evaluate and use the existing in silico tools and to challenge their developers to demand tools that will rationally and efficiently move the discovery projects forward. Metabol Expert Metabol Expert is an ideal program for a quick prediction of the metabolic fate of compound in the drug discovery process during the dispositional research phase. Metabol Expert is a unique tool for initial estimation of the structural formula of metabolites. Metabol Expert is a rule based system with open architecture, in other words, the chemists, metabolism researchers, drug disposition experts and environmental managers can understand, expand, modify or optimize the data on which the metabolic structural estimation relies. Commercialized by Compudrug in 1987, Metabol Expert is composed of a database, a knowledge base and several prediction tools. The basic biotransformation database contains 179 biotransformations, 112 of which are derived from Testa and Jenner, the others are based on frequently occurring metabolic pathways. The transformation knowledge-base is composed of if-then type rules. Each is composed of our components, the structure changed during the transformation, the new substructure formed, a list of substructure at least one of which must be present in the molecule for the biotransformation form occurring. These rules have been derived from the literature by experts and are input into the system by means of graphical tools. The system is open so that new rules can be added or existing ones modified or deleted. There are two types of predictions in Metabol Expert. In the first type, the system tries to match basic transformations automatically. There is a filter so that biotransformation sequences can be arrested after generation of a specified number of metabolites. Basic transformations are classified as phase I or phase II. In the event of a phase II metabolite being generated, the sequences are arrested and the metabolite is not included in the next level. If a transformation results in the generation of two metabolites, then both are passed into the next level. The second type of analysis is an extended prediction model in which metabolites generated from basic transformations is compared to a list of transformations in a learned tree for a given species and the analogues are then listed in order of similarity. The program then attempts to quantify predictions based in the information in the learned tree. MexAlert MexAlert was developed to be an ideal assistant for high-throughput screening. It is advantageous to consider metabolism still before synthesis of the compounds, in order to exclude unwanted metabolic pathways, leading, for example, to first pass effect or to formation of toxic intermediates. MexAlert predicts first pass metabolic pathways by quickly identifying sites on the molecule where Phase II metabolic transformations (in other words, conjugation) may occur. It is rule based system; the rules are selected from among the Phase II transformations in the animal knowledge base, and modified according to in vivo experimental example of first-pass effect pathways. In silico toxicity prediction Attrition during the drug development process is a serious economic problem for the pharmaceutical industry and it is often due to inappropriate ADME/Tox characteristics. IT has been estimated that 20-40% of the drug failure in investigational drug development phases are due to safety issues, not continuing multiple incidents of adverse effects of existing drugs. The early drug discovery process needs to address in parallel not only potency but also pharmacokinetics and toxicological properties. Van de Waterbeemd and his colleagues at Pfizer have called this approach ‘property-based design’, emphasizing the importance of the critical combinations of physical and structural properties that contribute to ‘druglikeness’. Ideally this process should begin early in discovery, using computational models to screen both virtual libraries and available compound collections to identify compounds with the desired properties (good potency, ADME and low toxicity). Often molecular size and lipophilicity have an important effect on all three properties. High biological activity is frequently associated with high LogP, but this may also raise the probability of high toxicity. In the 1990s, drug companies invested heavily in combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening (HTS) as a source of leads for new targets. Most screen actives turned out to be large and/or hydrophobic, clearly contraindicating to the principles of minimal hydrophobicity. The most visible outcome was not even that they were toxic (because most compounds did not advance that far in development), but that they were either insoluble or non-absorbable. This overshadowed any toxicological consideration in the early stages of drug discovery, bringing forward compounds solubility and permeability as the most urgent problems to address. In the late 1990s the concepts of drug-likeness and lead likeness emerged and simple rules were formulated e.g. â€Å"rule of 5† to warn chemists when compounds were well outside the property space normal for orally active drugs. These rules are now widely used in Virtual Screening to remove undesirable compounds from consideration prior to their synthesis or acquisition. In addition to simple property filters toxicological issues should also be considered because otherwise any specific hazardous sub structural effects are ignored. Some of the harshest reactivity effects are identified and removed using predefined alert substructures (e.g., acid halides) (sometimes called â€Å"garbage filters†). The problem is the most of such alert substructures are â€Å"chameleonic† in nature, i.e., they may not necessarily cause toxic effects depending on other functional groups and overall molecular structures (e.g., acid halides). To fix this, all chameleonic† substructures (from â€Å"garbage† filters and beyond) must be supplemented with class specific QSAR’s for different health effects, yielding toxicological expert systems. Such systems can be used in virtual screening along with â€Å"drug –likeness† filters to subdivide compounds into â€Å"safe†, â€Å"hazardous† and â€Å"Questionable†. Promising compounds need further toxicological evaluation, but this cannot be done by predicative methods alone due to multiple knowledge gaps in their training sets and limited numbers of considered toxicological end points. Sometimes further evaluation is done during lead optimization, when chemical structures are covalently modified and tested. At this stage various toxicological predictions are used to prioritize both compounds that are to be tested and in vitro methods can reliably predict drug’s effect on a whole animal system, yet Animal Tests are not usually done until drug development candidates are identified. By this time drug development cost can reach substantial levels, economic risks become considerable. Thus any predictive tools that help to identify adverse effects in animals prior to conducting such testes are highly desirable. If a known toxic pharmacophore is identified and closely related to the pharmacophore required for activity at the therapeutic target then series specific SAR is needed to aid design of molecules with an adequate separation between the therapeutic dose and the dose threshold for the toxic effect. Since it is essential to have an in vitro surrogate that can model the desired in vivo effect on a significant number of compounds. Some of the more important end points for which in vitro surrogates that can model the desired in vivo effect on a significant numbers of compounds. Some of the more important end points for which in vitro surrogates have been used are: QT prolongation in heart due to blockade of the hERG potassium channel, hepatotoxicity due to compounds that produce phospholipidosis and hepatotoxicity due to induction of CYP450 enzymes. To summarize, in drug design toxicity predictions can be useful for three purpose – virtual screeing, prioritization of compounds and in vitro tests, and prediction of health effects in whole animal systems. Although many toxicologists are understandably leave us with no choice but to make the attempt using available animal toxicity database.